The Grammar Grind: Clauses and Phrases – Part 1

Though most people don’t think about them on an individual level, clauses and phrases join to form every sentence we write and read. While parts of speech are the building blocks of the English language, clauses and phrases work together to connect ideas and give them proper flow and readability. In short, their structure helps us make sense of those ideas. In fiction (and even nonfiction), knowing how to manipulate clauses and phrases are essential to good writing. Without them, sentence variation wouldn’t exist. So let’s start with the basics.

What Is a Clause?

Clauses are groups of related words that have a subject and a verb. Some clauses are dependent, and others are independent. Clauses also help determine when and where commas are needed.

Clause Types

Independent Clauses Independent clauses include a subject and a verb, and they express a complete thought. In other words, they can stand alone.

Example: The cat sat on the windowsill.

Dependent or Subordinating Clauses Dependent clauses also contain a subject and a verb—though they don’t always directly state both (see Example B)—but they do not express a complete thought and are reliant on independent clauses to support them. In other words, they cannot stand on their own and are not sentences.

Example A: When traveling to another country… Example B: …but didn’t show up until 9 p.m. (In the last example, the subject would be implied from the independent clause preceding it; however, since it is not directly stated in the second part, that part is considered a dependent clause, and NO COMMA is used before it.)

Dependent clauses are also the trickiest clauses to master, particularly when it comes to punctuation, because there are several different types.

Relative Clauses (Adjective Clauses) Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun and function as an adjective. They can be restrictive or nonrestrictive depending on the context.

Restrictive relative clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence and are NOT set off with commas. They can specify which item/person is being referred to out of several choices, or they can provide information that is crucial to the surrounding clauses.

Example A: The cashier who checked me out at the grocery store was very friendly. In the above example, the relative clause is considered restrictive because it specifies which of the many cashiers working there the sentence is referring to; therefore, no commas are used.

Example B: The television that he chose was one of the most highly rated ones of the year.

In Example B, the restrictive relative clause dictates which television the information following it is discussing. Another very important thing to note about this example is the use of the word that. The word which would actually be incorrect here; it is primarily used for setting off nonrestrictive relative clauses. Grammar Girl has some great tips on the topic.

Nonrestrictive relative clauses are not essential to the meaning of the sentence and could be left out without changing the overall meaning. This type of relative clause is ALWAYS set off with commas.

Example A: Jack, who is our new biology teacher, will be starting next week.

The relative clause in the above example actually tells us two things. First, it tells us that Jack is the new biology teacher, an added detail that is nice to know but isn’t crucial to the overall meaning of the sentence. However, it also implies that the narrator is referring to a specific Jack that the reader is already aware of, indicated by the surrounding commas. Without the commas, it would be assumed that there is more than one Jack and that it was necessary for the narrator to specify which one he was talking about.

Example B: Blueberries, which are a great source of Vitamin C, are one of my favorite fruits.

Example B includes a relative clause that provides us with extra information about the subject that it modifies, but the information does not restrict the subject in any way, so it is considered nonessential and should be set off with commas. Note the use of the word which here rather than that.

Noun Clauses Noun clauses function are a string of words that function as a noun in the sentence. However, they differ from a noun phrase in the fact that contain both a subject and a verb.

Example A: I don’t remember what I ate for dinner. Example B: The question is whether or not the rope will hold. Example C: The winner will be determined by whoever gets the most votes.

Important note about pronoun cases (who, whom, whoever, whomever): Which pronoun should be used is determined by the role it plays in its own clause, NOT by its relation to the rest of the sentence. Example C illustrates this idea.

Adverbial Clauses (most often referred to as subordinate clauses) Adverbial clauses begin with a subordinating conjunction and answer the question when, how, where, why, to what extent, or under what conditions something happens. They can be found anywhere in the sentence but are most commonly found at the beginning or end. Such clauses used at the beginning of a sentence are followed by a comma. Those found at the end are not, except in cases of extreme contrast.

Example A: While you were busy playing games, I completed my art project. Example B: You need to clean up your room before you can hang out with your friends. Example C: We just purchased a new television, though our budget is tight. (A comma is used in the last example because of a contrasting situation.)

Because is probably the most difficult subordinating conjunction to deal with regarding comma usage. While a comma is always used after it when it starts a clause at the beginning of a sentence, whether or not a comma is required before it at the end of a sentence depends solely on the overall meaning of the sentence. A comma is typically only used for clarification.

Example A: Because we missed the bus, our mom drove us to school. Example B: We went for a walk because it was such a nice day. Example C: I didn’t work today, because I was sick. (The comma in the last example is needed for clarification. Without it, it implies that there might be an alternative meaning that doesn’t really make much sense: that the narrator did work today, not because he was sick, but for some other reason that wasn’t expressed. Many times, the comma before “because” will be required when the first half of the sentence is negated, as was the case in Example C.)

Side note: Subordinating conjunctions are not the same as conjunctive adverbs. So watch out for those. You can learn about them in my previous posts about parts of speech and semicolons.

The Grammar Grind: Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are the mechanical building blocks of the English language. They’re at the heart of all writing, and each word used to form a sentence is categorized into one of those parts. Those parts can then form clauses and phrases to develop even more complex sentences, which blossom into the beautiful art known as writing. So why is it important to learn them? Well, for one, they help shape your writing. At the core of every work for an individual author is the style in which they structure their sentences. I made a post on Tumblr last week about an article that analyzed four popular authors and their corresponding best-selling series. The article broke down each piece into its main components: parts of speech. The author of the post then went on to describe (quite wonderfully) how each author showed the same patterns throughout their book, and it was pretty easy to see which authors were the better writers just from that. So, what better way to improve your writing than by starting with the very basic elements?

In this post, I’d like to briefly cover each part of speech and its effect on writing. Studying the various elements can really help polish your work and improve your style to be the most effective when it comes to good storytelling.

Noun

A noun is a naming word. It names a person, place, thing, idea, or action. Nouns can name something concrete or abstract, can be proper or common, and can be singular or plural. They can also be collective, name a countable or non-countable amount, and can be gerunds (action words usually ending in –ing).

Nouns are one of the strongest parts of speech that you can implement into your writing. Using nouns that are specific and descriptive to the surrounding are typically the best ones to use. Sometimes using a noun that falls into several of the categories is a good fit as well.

Using Nouns to Add Description to the Environment

Original sentence: The front door was surrounded with decorations.

The nouns used here are okay, but let’s see if we can pick some more descriptive ones.

Modified sentence: The entryway was surrounded with beautiful paneling and stained glass.

Much better. The detail makes this door a unique one and gives the reader some vivid imagery to remember it by.

Verb

A verb is a word that describes an action or a state of being. They can be action or linking verbs, main or auxiliary verbs, or transitive/intransitive (requiring an object or not) verbs. They also determine the tense of a sentence.

Verbs are your most useful tool in writing. Making a great verb choice will reduce the need for adjectives and adverbs, and it produces concise and powerful sentences. Whenever possible, replacing weak verbs with strong ones—and avoiding linking ones—is always a good idea for a quick way to improve your writing. Verb choice is usually the most problematic area for writers, so it’s important to be especially aware of this during your revisions.

Using Verbs to Strengthen Your Sentences

Original sentence: Jamie looked over her shoulder just in time to see the car driving past.

The verbs here are weak and leave a bit to be desired. Without context, you can’t tell the pace or mood of this scene. Let’s see if we can spruce it up a bit.

Modified sentence: Jamie craned her neck just in time to see the car swerving by.

Not only did we shorten this sentence with the changes, but there is a definite sense of urgency now, and the suspense has been heightened. The pace is picking up.

Adjective

An adjective is a word that modifies/describes a noun. It tells you something specific that otherwise might not have been known. Typically, the adjective precedes the noun that it modifies, but they can also come after linking verbs. They can be used for comparison or as superlatives. (Note that when they are used as superlatives, you should NEVER use both an –er ending and the word more or an –est ending and the word most.)

Adjectives are most effective when they are used sparingly. You should use them to give specific descriptions that make the noun they are modifying unique, but only when the situation calls for it. Like with verbs, strong—and less common—adjectives make for better writing.

Using Adjectives to Enhance Descriptions

Original sentence: Serena is a beautiful young girl with long, flowing blonde hair.

There are several adjectives here that do tell us a bit about Serena, but some more distinct and descriptive ones would be nice. Replacing a few with stronger parts of speech would help too.

Modified sentence: Serena is a stunning teenage girl with fair hair that flows halfway down her back.

Now we can see that Serena is not just beautiful but stunning. That makes her stand out from everyone else. We also know a more specific age for her and can tell the exact length of her blonde hair.

Adverb

An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It can tell you how something is done or when/where something happened. Many adverbs end in –ly, but not all. Though they typically appear before the verb they modify, they can also come after, especially when it comes to dialogue.

Like adjectives, adverbs are best used sparingly. They are the most effective when giving specifics about an event that the reader otherwise wouldn’t have known and work best in the company of strong verbs. When placed well, they can add to the subtleties of environment and pace in a scene as well as the mood.

Using Adverbs to Enhance Environment, Pace, and Mood

Original sentence: Earlier that morning, Joe had carefully placed his school supplies in his backpack.

The sentence isn’t too bad, but let’s see if we can make it more specific and replace some of the adverbs and verb with stronger ones. Adverbial phrases work well in situations such as this one.

Modified sentence: Once dressed, Joe had meticulously arranged his school supplies in his backpack.

Because of the adverbial phrase, we now know a more specific time in the morning that Joe performed these actions, and the word meticulous tells us that he’s not only careful but unduly precise in the placement of his belongings. The stronger verb paired with that adverb also improves the sentence.

Pronoun

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition of that noun. Personal pronouns can act as subjects or objects; possessive pronouns indicate ownership. Reflexive pronouns are used to indicate that the subject of the verb is also the receiver of that action. Intensive pronouns (which overlap the reflexive ones) simply emphasize the noun they refer back to. The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another are collective pronouns used to express shared actions or emotions. Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things; demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, and those) are used to point out specific ones. Interrogative pronouns introduce questions, and relative pronouns, which overlap the interrogative ones, introduce dependent clauses that refer to a noun already mentioned in the sentence (i.e. the antecedent); the clauses they introduce can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.

Regulating between nouns and pronouns can be tricky at times, but when the pronouns are well placed, they drastically improve the flow of the sentence.

Using Pronouns to Improve Sentence Flow

Original sentence: Marcus didn’t realize that Lucy and Mary had already completed more of Lucy’s and Mary’s homework than Marcus had Marcus’s.

This sentence is not only cumbersome to read but it also doesn’t entirely make sense. Let’s clean it up with some pronouns.

Modified sentence: Marcus didn’t realize that Lucy and Mary had already completed more of their homework than he had his own.

The changes make a vast improvement. This sentence makes a lot more sense now and is much easier to read.

Conjunction

A conjunction joins together words, phrases, and clauses. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions are the most common and are used with commas to create compound sentences. However, if one of the clauses is dependent, no comma is used with the conjunction. (See my post on commas for the rules.) Correlative conjunctions work in pairs and typically do not use commas. Subordinating conjunctions join together an independent clause with a dependent, subordinating one. When a subordinating clause is found at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is used after it. When it comes at the end, no comma is used.

There is also a fourth element that I’d like to bring into the picture: conjunctive adverbs. While they are not true conjunctions, they can work as such to join two independent clauses that are related but don’t use typical conjunctions. Like the other kinds of conjunctions, they require additional punctuation around them. However, the type of punctuation depends on placement of the adverb. If it occurs at the beginning of a sentence, a comma is used after it. If it occurs in the middle of a sentence as an interrupter word, it is surrounded by commas. When one is used to join two independent clauses together, a semicolon is required before it, and a comma is then used after it. The only time a conjunctive adverb does not require punctuation is if it falls at the end of sentence. An older rule dictated that a comma must always precede the adverb if that be the case, but this rule is no longer observed. Commas are only used before such an adverb at the end of the sentence for emphasis and clarity. (Refer to the Chicago Manual of Style.)

Each of these conjunctions is great for giving your sentences variety. Without them, you’re stuck with simple sentences that all sound the same—which certainly won’t hold your readers’ attention.

Using Conjunctions to Create Sentence Variation

In this example, let’s start with a whole paragraph so we can see just how big of an effect conjunctions have in creating sentence variation.

Original paragraph: Max’s test lay on the desk in front of him. He was completely unprepared for it. He should have been studying for it last night. He spent the night out with friends. He stared at it now. He wished he could remember the details of the American Civil War. He thought for several minutes. Nothing came to mind. He was certain he would fail at this point.

This paragraph retells a number of events, but it reads more like a laundry list than a story. There isn’t really a distinct voice to it. Let’s throw in some conjunctions to change the pace a bit.

Modified paragraph: Max’s test lay on the desk in front of him, but he was completely unprepared for it. He should have been studying for it last night; instead, he spent the night out with friends. He stared at it now and wished he could remember the details of the American Civil War. After several minutes, nothing came to mind. He was certain he would fail at this point.

Now the details of the situation are a bit clearer, and there is a distinct flow to the narrative. By doing nothing more than adding in a few conjunctions and connecting some of the ideas, a picture is starting to form, and a narrative is created.

Preposition

A preposition connects a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to the rest of the sentence. Together, the preposition and the noun or noun phrase form a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases act as adjectives or adverbs and provide extra information in a sentence.

Prepositional phrases help add detail to a piece. They should be used to provide essential information and to help form imagery.

Using Prepositions to Add Context

Original sentence: Lacey found her notebook.

This is a pretty simple sentence. We get only the bare essentials and no other context. Let’s see if adding in a prepositional phrase or two can give us the information we’re missing.

Modified sentence: At the last second before the bus arrived, Lacey found her notebook next to the armchair.

With just a few prepositions, we can get quite a bit of context in one sentence. We now know that Lacey didn’t just find her notebook; she was also running late and found it just seconds before her bus arrived. We also know a generalized age for Lacey as well as where she found the notebook.

Interjection

An interjection is a word or phrase that can stand alone and expresses emotion or surprise. They can be set off with commas or exclamation points depending on the strength of the emotion being expressed. Examples: Oh! Wow! Hey! Yikes! Hooray!

When used sparingly, interjections can be an effective way of enhancing creative writing, particularly dialogue. They should be used to add subtle undertones to a conversation or scene and are a great way to avoid amateur tags in dialogue that directly state, rather than illustrate, characters’ emotions, especially when coupled with strong body language.

Using Interjections to Express Emotion

Original sentence: “That’s not fair,” Tom said, disappointed that he would be unable to go to the movie.

While it’s clear what Tom’s emotions are here, the writing itself is somewhat drab and doesn’t leave much for the reader to picture. Let’s add an interjection to the dialogue to give some emotion to it and then couple that with some body language to further illustrate his frustration.

Modified sentence: “Hey, that’s not fair!” Tom whined, staring at his feet and kicking up some dirt.

Now there’s a definite mood he’s expressing, and his body language confirms that. We can tell that he is both frustrated and disappointed without ever having it be directly stated. The only thing that is needed by altering the sentence is context.

Articles

An article is used to introduce a noun. It lets the reader know whether the noun is a specific one or a general one. There are only three articles in the English language: a, an, and the. The is used to indicate a very particular noun, and a/an is used to indicate one that is being mentioned when there are other possibilities. Whether or not there is a need to use an article depends on the noun it’s modifying.

If you’re using one of the general articles, you’ll have to decide whether a or an is appropriate. The trick is to pick out the initial sound of the word, regardless of how it’s spelled. For instance, you would say “an honest statement” rather than “a honest statement” because the h in honest is silent; therefore, the word’s beginning sound is that of a short o. Another thing to note is that the word immediately following the article is the one that dictates which of the two articles should be used. Even if the noun being modified has several adjectives or adverbs in front of it, the one that comes directly after the article is the one that will determine which article is correct. (E.g. “a perfectly honest opinion.”)

The biggest thing to watch out for with articles is to be certain you’re using the right one. Using a specific article vs. a general one—and vice versa—can drastically change the meaning of a sentence. Note that adjectives are more often coupled with specific articles than general ones.

Using Articles to Indicate Importance of a Noun

Original sentence: Mikey threw a ball.

The sentence implies that there is more than one item that Mikey could choose to throw. It also implies that which ball he threw isn’t really all that important.

Modified sentence: Mikey threw the ball.

This sentence implies that Mikey threw the only ball available to him. If you add in an adjective, the sentence becomes even more specific: Mikey threw the red ball.

Now we know that there were several kinds or colors of balls, but Mikey chose to throw the red one specifically. Details such as that generally indicate an object of importance.

From nouns to articles, each part of speech builds on the others. By breaking down sentences and tweaking individual words, writers can practice small changes to enhance their writing and produce well-crafted sentences.

The Grammar Grind: Tenses, Part 2

This article is a continuation of the previous article about tenses and will discuss all variations of the future tense as well as the conditional tenses. Each tense can be written using an affirmative statement, a negated statement, and a question. Simple Future The simple future tense is used to indicate and action that will take place in the future. It is assumed that action cannot be influenced and is inevitable. The action indicated is sometimes spontaneous. The future tense is noted by two variations in structure: one uses the auxiliary verb will or shall, and the other uses the phrase am/is/are going to.

Example 1a: She will write. Example 1b: She is going to write. Example 2a: She will not write. Example 2b: She is not going to write. Example 3a: Will she write? Example 3b: Is she going to write?

Future Progressive (Future Continuous) The future progressive tense is used to indicate an action that will happen at a certain point in the future. The action is also one that is sure to happen in the near future. The –ing form of the main verb is used in conjunction with the auxiliary verbs will/shall be, or the phrase am/is/are going to be for this tense.

Example 1a: She will be writing. Example 1b: She is going to be writing. Example 2a: She will not be writing. Example 2b: She is not going to be writing. Example 3a: Will she be writing? Example 3b: Is she going to be writing?

Future Perfect The future perfect tense is used to indicate an action that will be finished at a certain point in the future. The perfect tense form of the main verb is used along with the corresponding auxiliary verbs will/shall have or the phrase am/is/are going to have.

Example 1a: She will have written a book. Example 1b: She is going to have written a book. Example 2a: She will not have written a book. Example 2b: She is not going to have written a book. Example 3a: Will she have written a book? Example 3b: Is she going to have written a book?

Future Perfect Progressive (Future Perfect Continuous) The future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that will take place in the future before an even further point the future. Emphasis is on the duration of the action. The –ing form of the main verb is used with the auxiliary verbs will/shall have beenor the phrase am/is/are going to have been.

Example 1a: She will have been writing for hours. Example 1b: She is going to have been writing for hours. Example 2a: She will not have been writing for hours. Example 2b: She is not going to have been writing for hours. Example 3a: Will she have been writing for hours? Example 3b: Is she going to have been writing for hours?

Zero Conditional The zero conditional tense is used to indicate a situation that is real and possible either at the current time or always. It is often used to illustrate facts and/or general truths. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + simple present verb, followed by simple present verb. No auxiliary verbs are used.

Example: If you heat water, it boils.

Conditional I The conditional I tense is used to indicate a situation that is possible and is very likely to be fulfilled. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + simple present verb, followed by a simple future tense verb.

Example 1a: If you don’t hurry, you will be late. Example 1b: If you don’t hurry, you are going to be late. Example 2a: If you cut yourself, you will bleed. Example 2b: If you cut yourself, you are going to bleed.

Conditional II The conditional II tense is used to indicate a situation that is not based on fact but is unlikely or hypothetical with a probable result. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + simple past verb, followed by a present tense conditional statement with the auxiliary verb would.

Example 1: If you studied, you would do well on the test. Example 2: If you practiced, you would get better.

Conditional II Progressive (Conditional II Continuous) The conditional II tense is also used to indicate a situation that is unlikely or hypothetical with a probable result. However, the emphasis is on the course or duration of the action. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + simple past verb, followed by a progressive conditional statement with the auxiliary verbs would be.

Example 1: If you respond, you would be waiting for a reply. Example 2: If you earned a B, you would be doing well.

Conditional III The conditional III tense is used to indicate a situation occurring in the past that is contrary to reality. It refers to an untrue past event with a probable result if the conditions had been met. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + past perfect verb, followed by a perfect tense conditional statement with the auxiliary verbs would have.

Example 1: If it had snowed, you would have gotten the day off. Example 2: If you had been awake, you would have heard the announcement.

Conditional III Progressive (Conditional III Continuous) The conditional III progressive tense is also used to indicate a situation occurring in the past that is contrary to reality. However, the emphasis is on the course or duration of the action. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + past perfect verb, followed by a progressive conditional statement with the auxiliary verbs would have been.

Example 1: If you had been caught, you would have been in huge trouble. Example 2: If you had called, I would have been less worried.

Mixed Conditionals and Subjunctive Verbs Sometimes certain situations call for a mixture of the conditional tenses. Such situations are used to indicate a past event that is contrary to reality but would have had a direct impact on the present time if the conditions had been met. The structure of this type of tense is as follows: if + past perfect verb, followed by a present tense conditional statement with the auxiliary verb would.

Example 1: If I had put my keys away, they wouldn’t be lost. Example 2: If I had flown, I would be there already.

I also want to briefly mention subjunctive verbs. When dealing with conditional statements, especially types II and III, there will be times when a completely impossible event is being mentioned as hypothetical for the sake of giving advice or expressing one’s opinions about a particular situation. In those cases, the verb were is used, even if it disagrees with the subject. (i.e. It goes against standard subject-verb agreement.)

Example: If I were you, I wouldn’t press that button.

Under normal circumstances, the verb was would be the most agreeable with the subject I. However, since a conditional statement is being made in which a completely impossible event is expressed, the subjunctive verb were is correct. If the statement made had been possible in any way, was would then be the appropriate verb.

Example: If I was at home instead of at work, I could take a nap.

The Grammar Grind: Tenses, Part 1

Tenses are a distinction of the various verb forms that express duration of an action and when it took place. Not only do they guide a reader through a narrative, but they also help enrich the writing and make it more complex. Most people master the simple and perfect tenses rather easily, but the others can be a struggle. Including the conditional tenses, there are a total of 18 tenses in the English language. This article will discuss the present and past tenses and all the variations thereof. Each tense can be written using an affirmative statement, a negated statement, and a question.

Simple Present
The simple present tense is used to indicate an action that is currently taking place. This can be a one-time occurrence, a repeating occurrence, or one never happening at all. The auxiliary verb door does is sometimes used, especially in the case of a question.

Example 1: She writes.
Example 2: She does not write.
Example 3: Does she write?

Present Progressive (Present Continuous)
The present progressive tense is used to indicate an action that is taking place during the current time and the currently time only. In other words, the action has a limited duration. The –ing form of the main verb is always used along with the corresponding auxiliary verb am, is, or are.

Example 1: She is writing.
Example 2: She is not writing.
Example 3: Is she writing?

Present Perfect
The present perfect tense is used to indicate an action that is still going on or has recently stopped. If it is signifying a finished action, that action has an influence on the present and often immediately precedes an action taking place in the present time. The perfect tense form of the main verb is used in conjunction with the auxiliary verb has or have.

Example 1: She has written a book.
Example 2: She has not written a book.
Example 3: Has she written a book?

Present Perfect Progressive (Present Perfect Continuous)
The present perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that has recently stopped or is still going on. Emphasis is on duration of the action. If it is signifying a finished action, that action has an influence on the present. The –ing form of the main verb is used along with corresponding auxiliary verbs have been or has been.

Example 1: She has been writing since she was a young girl.
Example 2: She has not been writing since she was a young girl.
Example 3: Has she been writing since she was a young girl?

Simple Past
The simple past tense is used to indicate an action that took place at an earlier time. It is often used to speak of an action that occurred in the more recent past, though that is not always the case. The auxiliary verb did is sometimes used, especially in the case of a question.

Example 1: She wrote a book.
Example 2: She did not write a book.
Example 3: Did she write a book?

Past Progressive (Past Continuous)
The past progressive tense is used to indicate an action that happened at a very specific point in the past. That action is also considered to have a limited duration. The auxiliary verb wasor were is used in conjunction with the –ing form of the main verb.

Example 1: She was writing.
Example 2: She was not writing
Example 3: Was she writing?


Past Perfect
The past perfect tense is used to indicate an action that took place far in the past before another event in the past. It is sometimes interchangeable with (and preferable to) the past perfect progressive tense. The perfect tense form of the main verb is used in conjunction with the auxiliary verb had.

Example 1: She had written.
Example 2: She had not written.
Example 3: Had she written?

Past Perfect Progressive (Past Perfect Continuous)
The past perfect progressive tense is used to indicate an action that took place before a certain time in the past. It is sometimes interchangeable with the past perfect tense. Emphasis is on the duration of the action. The –ing form of the main verb is used in conjunction with the auxiliary verbs had and been.

Example 1: She had been writing all weekend.
Example 2: She had not been writing all weekend.
Example 3: Had she been writing all weekend?