The Grammar Grind: Sentence Types

When I was first asked to do an article on sentence structure, I wasn't positive how I wanted to approach it. Sentence structure is a rather broad topic that covers many techniques and rules for writing sentences. However, I settled on splitting the topic into several articles rather than one large one. This particular post will cover sentence types and how to incorporate sentence variation into your writing. There are four main types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. Each one contains different parts of speech and can be somewhat manipulated to give you a wide variety of sentence structure. As I discussed in a previous post, sentence variation is one of the key elements of good writing. Without it, the writing can by dry and monotonous, so it's important to include each of these throughout your pieces, particularly with longer pieces of fiction.

Simple Sentences Simple sentences have one independent clause with no dependent ones. They usually contain little more than a subject and a verb but can vary in length.

Example A: The dog barked. Example B: Christopher walked to the store. Example C: Michael fed the chickens in the yard.

Compound Sentences Compound sentences contain more than one independent clause and no dependent ones. The clauses are typically joined with a coordinating conjunction. Each clause in a compound sentence must be able to stand on its own.

Example A: Jill turned left, and Tommy turned right. Example B: I remembered to pack my lunch, but I forgot to grab my umbrella. Example C: My aunt is coming to visit, so I need to clean my room.

Complex Sentences Complex sentences only have one independent clause, but they contain at least one dependent clause. In other words, they contain a clause that relies on the rest of the sentence to make it a complete thought. Dependent clauses used at the beginning of a sentence require a comma after them.

Example A: After I brushed my teeth, I was ready for bed. Example B: Samantha gets nervous whenever she has to speak in front of a large group. Example C: As per Miss Haley's instructions, we continued writing our papers until the end of class.

Compound-Complex Sentences Compound-complex sentences utilize more than one type of sentence. They contain multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

Example A: The stormy weather knocked out our power last night, and because of the outage, our alarm clocks never sounded. Example B: When one of our tires suddenly went flat, we pulled over, and Dad retrieved the spare from the trunk.

As you can see from the above examples, there are many ways to construct each sentence type just by adding or a removing adjectives, adverbs, and phrases. Use the different types to strengthen your writing and flow prose.

For further information about sentence types and independent/dependent clauses, you can check out the following resources: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/573/02/ http://eslbee.com/sentences.htm https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/01/ http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/subordinateclause.htm

Grammar Grind Post Update

The next Grammar Grind series post is coming soon for those wondering about it. In order to tackle some of the larger topics that were requested, I’ve decided to break it up into components and do multiple posts regarding it rather than one large one. In the mean time, there is always new stuff to check out on my Tumblr blog. This week has been a rather crazy one, so I've fallen behind a bit on my regular postings, but rest assured, things should be back to normal next week.

The Grammar Grind: Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons and colons are great for adding variety to your sentences and establishing bonds where necessary. But they are often misused because of their fluidity. It's also easy to confuse the two. So let's take a look at each and clarify when they are appropriate.

Semicolons
Semicolons can be used to link two sentences or ideas that are closely related but function independently. The joined sentences will often have a cause/effect relationship and are considered to be of equal weight. In other words, they express a similar idea or outcome.

Example: I went to the store; we were out of laundry detergent.

In the example, using a period after "store" would also be correct. However, the second half of the sentence serves as a cause to the first half, so joining the two clauses makes sense.

A good test to use for semicolons is to replace the semicolon with so or because. If the sentence makes sense with one of those words, a semicolon is likely suitable. Of course, writing the two sentences separately with a period at the end of each is always acceptable. So, if you're not sure whether the clauses can be linked with a semicolon, use a period instead.

Semicolons can also be used to separate items in a list when the items are lengthy or when you have lists within the overall list.

Example 1: When writing a book, you should consider all the characters involved and how they interact with one another; the plot and any related subplots; and what the overall goal in telling the story is (i.e. whether the protagonist will succeed or fail in getting what they want).

Example 2: In order to bake the cake, we need to buy: red, white, and blue berries; white and chocolate cake mix; and tall, medium, and short candles.

A semicolon should never be used to join fragments or to connect two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (e.g. and, but, and or). A comma is the appropriate punctuation in those situations. The only except is when you have a list within a list, as illustrated in the previous example.

Lastly, semicolons are used to join two main clauses with a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore, and instead). These adverbs often show cause and effect, sequence, contrast, comparison, or other similar relationships. (See Wikipedia's entry on conjunctive adverbs.)

Colons
Colons are known as the drum roll punctuation. They are used to introduce or define something and to connect related ideas of a different weight.

Example 1: In our garden this year, we planted several things: lettuce, carrots, peas, tomatoes, and cabbage.

Example 2: You only need one thing: common sense.

A good test to for colons is to replace the colon with a comma and the word namely. If the sentence still makes sense, a colon is acceptable.

Unlike the semicolon, a colon can actually be used to join an independent clause with a fragment, usually a noun. It's important to remember though that the independent clause must precede the colon, not follow it.

Note that just as with periods, colons only require one space after them.

Capitalization after a colon is another common question. The short answer is, it depends on the content following it. If the clause following it is a fragment, you should not capitalize the first word. However, if the clause is independent, a stylistic choice must be made. My preference is to capitalize the first letter of the word following a colon, but the most important thing is to be consistent. Also, if there is a proper noun following the colon, such as a name, then the first letter of the following word must be capitalized.

Quick Overview of Semicolons and Colons
1. Semicolons are used to join two independent sentences that are closely related; for separating long items in lists or lists within lists; and to connect two main clauses using a conjunctive adverb.
2. Semicolons should never be used to join fragments.
3. Semicolons cannot replace colons.
4. Colons are used to define or introduce the content following it and can be used to join an independent clause to a fragment.
5. Only one space should be used after a colon.
6. The first word after a colon should not be capitalized if the clause is a fragment; otherwise, capitalizing the first word after a colon is optional unless a proper noun is used.

The Grammar Grind: Quotation Marks

Quotations marks are rather simple to understand. They are used to capture word for word what somebody has said. They can also be used to indicate sarcasm or to set off a term, though italics are often preferred in such cases. Implementing quotation marks is a bit trickier. Many people struggle with the specifics, such as determining whether to use single or double quotation marks and where to place punctuation surrounding quotations.

This post will address those issues as well as a few others. Please keep in mind all rules discussed follow U.S. standards for quotation marks. Other countries follow a different standard, particularly for single vs. double quotation marks and punctuation placement. The field of journalism (newspapers, magazines, online publication, etc.) also often uses different style guidelines.

Single vs. Double Quotation Marks
Choosing the incorrect type of quotation marks—single or double—is the primary error I see in articles and manuscripts. But the U.S. rules for single vs. double quotation marks are very simple and direct. Single quotation marks are used if and only if they are placed inside double quotation marks (i.e. when there is a quotation within a quotation).

Example: Mary said, "She told Fred, 'Get out!'"

Grammar Girl has an excellent poston this subject and also discusses the difference between the terms quote and quotation.

Curly vs. Straight Quotation Marks
Though few people really notice, there are actually two styles of quotation marks: curly quotation marks (”) and straight quotation marks ("). Curly quotation marks are used to set off dialogue, titles, terms, etc., while straight quotation marks are only used to indicate measurements—a single mark to indicate feet and a double mark to indicate inches. However, since they are often sleeker and are more pleasing to the eye, straight quotation marks are often used as a replacement for curly ones, especially on websites and printed publications such as magazines and journals. But why do so when using straight quotation marks is technically incorrect?

It all has to do with typography. When typographers design fonts, they choose the type of quotation marks that best fits with the overall appearance of the typeface. When they use straight quotation marks instead of curly ones, they are opting for a better-looking design over a minor technicality. Browse through a few well-designed websites, and you'll quickly see what I mean. The truth of the matter is, rules dictating a distinction between the two styles are becoming a thing of the past.

Punctuation Placement
Punctuation placement is another toughie for people to get straight. Again, this mainly has to do with stylistic differences between the U.S. and other countries. For the U.S., periods and commas always go insidequotation marks, no matter what the case. If you have a single quotation with a double quotation, the period or comma should go inside both sets of quotations.

Example 1: "Let's try the next room," suggested Sally. "I don't think this one is big enough."

Example 2: Greg explained, "She looked me in the eye and confessed, 'Not this time.'"

There also should never be more than one punctuation mark at the end of a sentence, even when quotation marks are used. If a quotation is a statement, use the appropriate comma or period—not both.

Semicolons and colons are next in the hierarchy of punctuation. They should always be placed outside the quotation marks and take precedence over commas and periods.

Example: You don't always have to say "no"; you could suggest other options instead.

Question marks and exclamation marks are at the top in the hierarchy of punctuation. They will always take precedence over all other forms of punctuation. When coupled with a quotation, they should be placed logically within the sentence.

Example 1: Why would Jane have said, "The sky is green, not blue"?

Example 2: Judy exclaimed, "You're such a prude!"

If the sentence itself is a question or an exclamation, place the ending punctuation outside the quotation marks (Example 1). If instead the quotation is a question or exclamation, place the ending punctuation inside the quotation marks (Example 2). Notice that there is still only one form of punctuation at the end.

Finally, never use quotation marks when paraphrasing. Quotation marks should only be used to capture word for word what someone has said. When determining whether or not a statement is being paraphrased, look for an occurrence of the word "that" before the stated material. If present, "that" signifies the speaker is using his/her own words to reiterate someone else's message; hence, no quotation marks should be used.

Example: Johnny stated that Sally got lost on her way to the park.

Quick-Tip Overview
1. Single quotation marks should only be used inside of double quotation marks.
2. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.
3. Semicolons and colons always go outside quotation marks.
4. Question marks and exclamation marks should be placed logically within the sentence.
5. Question marks and exclamation marks take precedence over all other forms of punctuation; semicolons and colons rank next, followed by periods and commas.
6. Never use quotation marks when paraphrasing.