Quotations marks are rather simple to understand. They are used to capture word for word what somebody has said. They can also be used to indicate sarcasm or to set off a term, though italics are often preferred in such cases. Implementing quotation marks is a bit trickier. Many people struggle with the specifics, such as determining whether to use single or double quotation marks and where to place punctuation surrounding quotations.
This post will address those issues as well as a few others. Please keep in mind all rules discussed follow U.S. standards for quotation marks. Other countries follow a different standard, particularly for single vs. double quotation marks and punctuation placement. The field of journalism (newspapers, magazines, online publication, etc.) also often uses different style guidelines.
Single vs. Double Quotation Marks
Choosing the incorrect type of quotation marks—single or double—is the primary error I see in articles and manuscripts. But the U.S. rules for single vs. double quotation marks are very simple and direct. Single quotation marks are used if and only if they are placed inside double quotation marks (i.e. when there is a quotation within a quotation).
Example: Mary said, "She told Fred, 'Get out!'"
Grammar Girl has an excellent poston this subject and also discusses the difference between the terms quote and quotation.
Curly vs. Straight Quotation Marks
Though few people really notice, there are actually two styles of quotation marks: curly quotation marks (”) and straight quotation marks ("). Curly quotation marks are used to set off dialogue, titles, terms, etc., while straight quotation marks are only used to indicate measurements—a single mark to indicate feet and a double mark to indicate inches. However, since they are often sleeker and are more pleasing to the eye, straight quotation marks are often used as a replacement for curly ones, especially on websites and printed publications such as magazines and journals. But why do so when using straight quotation marks is technically incorrect?
It all has to do with typography. When typographers design fonts, they choose the type of quotation marks that best fits with the overall appearance of the typeface. When they use straight quotation marks instead of curly ones, they are opting for a better-looking design over a minor technicality. Browse through a few well-designed websites, and you'll quickly see what I mean. The truth of the matter is, rules dictating a distinction between the two styles are becoming a thing of the past.
Punctuation Placement
Punctuation placement is another toughie for people to get straight. Again, this mainly has to do with stylistic differences between the U.S. and other countries. For the U.S., periods and commas always go insidequotation marks, no matter what the case. If you have a single quotation with a double quotation, the period or comma should go inside both sets of quotations.
Example 1: "Let's try the next room," suggested Sally. "I don't think this one is big enough."
Example 2: Greg explained, "She looked me in the eye and confessed, 'Not this time.'"
There also should never be more than one punctuation mark at the end of a sentence, even when quotation marks are used. If a quotation is a statement, use the appropriate comma or period—not both.
Semicolons and colons are next in the hierarchy of punctuation. They should always be placed outside the quotation marks and take precedence over commas and periods.
Example: You don't always have to say "no"; you could suggest other options instead.
Question marks and exclamation marks are at the top in the hierarchy of punctuation. They will always take precedence over all other forms of punctuation. When coupled with a quotation, they should be placed logically within the sentence.
Example 1: Why would Jane have said, "The sky is green, not blue"?
Example 2: Judy exclaimed, "You're such a prude!"
If the sentence itself is a question or an exclamation, place the ending punctuation outside the quotation marks (Example 1). If instead the quotation is a question or exclamation, place the ending punctuation inside the quotation marks (Example 2). Notice that there is still only one form of punctuation at the end.
Finally, never use quotation marks when paraphrasing. Quotation marks should only be used to capture word for word what someone has said. When determining whether or not a statement is being paraphrased, look for an occurrence of the word "that" before the stated material. If present, "that" signifies the speaker is using his/her own words to reiterate someone else's message; hence, no quotation marks should be used.
Example: Johnny stated that Sally got lost on her way to the park.
Quick-Tip Overview
1. Single quotation marks should only be used inside of double quotation marks.
2. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.
3. Semicolons and colons always go outside quotation marks.
4. Question marks and exclamation marks should be placed logically within the sentence.
5. Question marks and exclamation marks take precedence over all other forms of punctuation; semicolons and colons rank next, followed by periods and commas.
6. Never use quotation marks when paraphrasing.
Writing a Short Story
If you’re looking for a few tips on writing a short story, you can head over to Amber Skye Forbes's blog on Wordpress. She was nice enough to post a guest blog I wrote for it.
She's also looking for some more guest bloggers, so if you're interested, contact her.
4 Key Tips for Aspiring Writers
Becoming a well-known author is a common dream for most aspiring writers. The desire to write is part of who we are, and we often strive to make a living at it. But becoming a professional author isn't easy; it difficult to get your foot in the door, and it's even harder to keep producing top-notch books on a regular basis once you're in. After all, it's extraordinarily rare to write a best-selling book that makes you millions, forcing the majority of writers to also have day jobs. So how does one achieve the status of a professional?
1. Treat writing as your career, not just a hobby. If you want to be an author full-time, you have to commit yourself to it. That means forcing yourself to sit down and write every day no matter what. You also have to push yourself and strive to make your work the best it can be.
2. Get feedback from a professional. While many of your friends and family can give you valuable input as readers, they likely won't know the ins and outs of the publishing world or much in the way of professional editing. The feedback you will receive from a good editor can give you an idea of whether your writing is publication ready. It can also help you establish the things you're good at, and what you need to work on. Attending writing workshops is also a great way to improve your skills.
3. Don't rush the publication process. While you definitely want to make an effort to get your work out there and establish a name for yourself, make sure your writing is the best it can be before you do so. The best books take planning and many, many rounds of edits.
4. Build your reputation. Run a regular writing blog and meet other writers. Create a Twitter account and other social media dedicated to your writing. Let people see your skills as a writer—but take precautions to protect your rights to your work. Basically, you need to connect with others and showcase your talent. That's probably one of the most challenging things about being a writer, because most of us aren't born salespeople. But the more you can establish a name for yourself, the more interested people will become in your writing. And don't be discouraged if it takes a while to get response; for many writers, it takes years to build up their reputation.
Being a professional author takes a lifetime of commitment and hard work, as well as self-discipline. It's a long road to travel for most of us, but one worth taking. The most successful authors are the ones who spend their whole lives writing and continue to do so simply because they have a passion for it.
For more tips on becoming a professional author, check out this awesome blog post by Larry Correia: http://bit.ly/12Lz2Po.
The Grammar Grind: Commas
It's easy to see how commas are probably the most misused punctuation mark. Not only are they tricky to use, but there are so many rules revolving around them, it's difficult to keep them straight. Commas are mainly used to join two clauses together to form a sentence, but they are also used with appositives and clauses; definitive words and titles; and times, places, and ideas. So how do you keep all this information straight? I recommend splitting the rules into categories; it's much easier to memorize a few categories than it is to remember all the rules individually. I also recommend studying the rules on a regular basis. I know the last thing most people want to do is to spend their free time schooling themselves again, especially about something as tedious as grammar. But if you don't practice, you'll never get any better.
Appositives and Clauses
1. Use a comma to set off nonessential information within a sentence. This type of appositive would be nonrestrictive.
Example: Jamie, my lab partner, got high marks in chemistry last year.
If the information is extra but necessary to the meaning of the sentence, the appositive is considered restrictive; therefore, no commas are used.
Example A: Famous artist Vincent Van Gogh was of Dutch descent.
Example B: Johnny brought his dog Spot to the park.
Why are these sentences restrictive? Example A mentions a specific famous artist. Without the name of that artist, the reader wouldn't know who was of Dutch descent. Example B assumes that Johnny has more than one dog. Therefore, clarification is needed to name which dog Johnny brought to the park with him. The same would be true if the subject had more than one sister or brother, car, etc.
2. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Note that the use of a conjunction alone does not make both parts independent. If a period can replace the conjunction and both parts of the sentence can stand alone, then both clauses are independent. If the second part cannot stand alone, it is a dependent clause, so no comma is needed.
Example A: Johnny went left, and I went right. Example B: Johnny went left but didn't bother to say goodbye.
Check out the following site for a list of coordinating conjunctions and their uses: http://bit.ly/MTurN
3. Use a comma after an introductory/subordinating word or phrase, otherwise known as a dependent clause, at the beginning of a sentence. The only exception to this rule is if the phrase is an adverbial phrase immediately followed by the verb it modifies.
Example A: After a long walk in the park, Walter was able to calm down.
Example B: Yes, I told him we would meet later. Example C: Before him stood a grand entrance. (The adverbial phrase "before him" modifies "stood.")
Check out this site for a list of subordinating conjunctions: http://bit.ly/53JG2x
Definitive Words and Titles
4. Use commas to set off names and titles that directly address someone, as well as degrees following names.
Example A: My wife, Tina, makes delicious chocolate chip cookies.
Example B: Miss, would you like a hand?
Example C: Doctor Colby Smith, M.D., has received many awards for his medical expertise.
5. Use a comma around interrupter words and phrases (considered a type of non-restrictive appositive) that appear in the middle of a sentence. Prepositional phrases can also sometimes be interrupters.
Example A: This afternoon, in fact, we had gorgeous weather.
Example B: Alex, however, did not want to participate.
Example C: I found out, to my horror, that I was failing English.
However, when interrupter words and phrases are placed in the middle of two independent clauses, a conjunction, period, or semicolon should be used.
Example A: We were running low on food, but the store was nearby.
Example B: We were running low on food. However, the store was nearby.
Example C: We were running low on food; however, the store was nearby.
In these examples, using a comma alone would result in a common error called a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when two independent thoughts are joined together by a comma alone, rather than using a conjunction, period, or semicolon. This can occur with or without an interrupter word. Note that when an interrupter word is used in this kind of a situation, a comma must follow it.
6. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives. To decide if the adjectives are coordinate, ask yourself the following two questions:
- Does the word "and" make sense between them?
- Does the sentence make sense if the two adjectives are written in reverse order?
If the answer is yes to both of these questions, the adjectives are coordinate, and a comma should be used. If not, the adjectives are considered non-coordinate, and the comma is omitted.
Example A: Before her stood a tall, white fence.
Example B: Tom found fresh green grass on the other side of the hill.
7. Use a comma to separate words or short phrases that are part of a list. Use a semicolon to separate longer phrases used as list items.
Example A: I went to the store and bought milk, eggs, bread, and butter.
Example B: I still need to brush my teeth, comb my hair, and get dressed.
Example C: To learn how to use punctuation effectively, one must study it frequently and take note of any changes to the rules; practice it in both daily writing and in professional settings; and be willing to change their habits if they are using punctuation incorrectly.
With simple lists, bear in mind that U.K. rules and U.S. rules differ. In the U.K., there is no comma before the "and" (known as the Oxford comma); in the U.S., there is. You may see the comma omitted in the U.S. for news articles and other such areas of journalism, but in fiction writing and most of nonfiction writing, the comma still stands.
Times, Places, and Ideas
8. Use a comma between the day of the month and the year. If either the day of the month or the year is omitted, do not use a comma.
Example A: I was born on January 12, 1927.
Example B: I was born in January 1927.
Example C: I was born on January 12.
9. Use a comma to separate city and state.
Example: She was born in Lexington, Kentucky.
10. Use a comma to set off a direct quote. When splitting a sentence that contains a direct quote, place a comma before both halves of the quote.
Example A: John said, "It's your turn to wash the dishes."
Example B: "How is it my turn," Mary complained, "when I did them last night?"
11. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question when they are both part of the same sentence.
Example: I can go with my friends, can't I?
12. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example: I prefer to have my beverages shaken, not stirred.
Clarification
Though seldom needed, commas can sometimes be used for clarification. If you are a native speaker of English, recognizing the need for such a comma will come a bit more easily. Even so, developing the necessary intuition to recognize these situations can be difficult. The following is an example of how to deal with such a sentence.
Unclear: The room was full of crying babies and mothers. (Were the mothers crying too?)
Better: The room was full of crying babies, and mothers. (Clearer, but let's make it even better.)
Best: The room was full of mothers and crying babies.
As you can see from the examples above, the best option is to reword the sentence entirely.
Quick Overview of Commas
- Commas are used to set off nonessential information.
- Use commas to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
- Use commas after introductory clauses, except in the case of adverbial phrases immediately followed by the verb they modify.
- Use commas to set off names, titles, and degrees.
- Use a comma between coordinate adjectives.
- Use a comma to separate day of the month and year.
- Use a comma to separate city and state.
- Use commas to set off direct quotes.
- Use a comma to separate a statement from a question and between contrasting parts of a sentence.
- Use commas sparingly for clarification.