The Grammar Grind: Commas

It's easy to see how commas are probably the most misused punctuation mark. Not only are they tricky to use, but there are so many rules revolving around them, it's difficult to keep them straight. Commas are mainly used to join two clauses together to form a sentence, but they are also used with appositives and clauses; definitive words and titles; and times, places, and ideas. So how do you keep all this information straight? I recommend splitting the rules into categories; it's much easier to memorize a few categories than it is to remember all the rules individually. I also recommend studying the rules on a regular basis. I know the last thing most people want to do is to spend their free time schooling themselves again, especially about something as tedious as grammar. But if you don't practice, you'll never get any better.

Appositives and Clauses

1. Use a comma to set off nonessential information within a sentence. This type of appositive would be nonrestrictive.

Example: Jamie, my lab partner, got high marks in chemistry last year.

If the information is extra but necessary to the meaning of the sentence, the appositive is considered restrictive; therefore, no commas are used.

Example A: Famous artist Vincent Van Gogh was of Dutch descent.

Example B: Johnny brought his dog Spot to the park.

Why are these sentences restrictive? Example A mentions a specific famous artist. Without the name of that artist, the reader wouldn't know who was of Dutch descent. Example B assumes that Johnny has more than one dog. Therefore, clarification is needed to name which dog Johnny brought to the park with him. The same would be true if the subject had more than one sister or brother, car, etc.

2. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Note that the use of a conjunction alone does not make both parts independent. If a period can replace the conjunction and both parts of the sentence can stand alone, then both clauses are independent. If the second part cannot stand alone, it is a dependent clause, so no comma is needed.

Example A: Johnny went left, and I went right. Example B: Johnny went left but didn't bother to say goodbye.

Check out the following site for a list of coordinating conjunctions and their uses: http://bit.ly/MTurN

3. Use a comma after an introductory/subordinating word or phrase, otherwise known as a dependent clause, at the beginning of a sentence. The only exception to this rule is if the phrase is an adverbial phrase immediately followed by the verb it modifies.

Example A: After a long walk in the park, Walter was able to calm down.

Example B: Yes, I told him we would meet later. Example C: Before him stood a grand entrance. (The adverbial phrase "before him" modifies "stood.")

Check out this site for a list of subordinating conjunctions: http://bit.ly/53JG2x

Definitive Words and Titles

4. Use commas to set off names and titles that directly address someone, as well as degrees following names.

Example A: My wife, Tina, makes delicious chocolate chip cookies.

Example B: Miss, would you like a hand?

Example C: Doctor Colby Smith, M.D., has received many awards for his medical expertise.

5. Use a comma around interrupter words and phrases (considered a type of non-restrictive appositive) that appear in the middle of a sentence. Prepositional phrases can also sometimes be interrupters.

Example A: This afternoon, in fact, we had gorgeous weather.

Example B: Alex, however, did not want to participate.

Example C: I found out, to my horror, that I was failing English.

However, when interrupter words and phrases are placed in the middle of two independent clauses, a conjunction, period, or semicolon should be used.

Example A: We were running low on food, but the store was nearby.

Example B: We were running low on food. However, the store was nearby.

Example C: We were running low on food; however, the store was nearby.

In these examples, using a comma alone would result in a common error called a comma splice. A comma splice occurs when two independent thoughts are joined together by a comma alone, rather than using a conjunction, period, or semicolon. This can occur with or without an interrupter word. Note that when an interrupter word is used in this kind of a situation, a comma must follow it.

6. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives. To decide if the adjectives are coordinate, ask yourself the following two questions:

• Does the word "and" make sense between them?
• Does the sentence make sense if the two adjectives are written in reverse order?

If the answer is yes to both of these questions, the adjectives are coordinate, and a comma should be used. If not, the adjectives are considered non-coordinate, and the comma is omitted.

Example A: Before her stood a tall, white fence.

Example B: Tom found fresh green grass on the other side of the hill.

7. Use a comma to separate words or short phrases that are part of a list. Use a semicolon to separate longer phrases used as list items.

Example A: I went to the store and bought milk, eggs, bread, and butter.

Example B: I still need to brush my teeth, comb my hair, and get dressed.

Example C: To learn how to use punctuation effectively, one must study it frequently and take note of any changes to the rules; practice it in both daily writing and in professional settings; and be willing to change their habits if they are using punctuation incorrectly.

With simple lists, bear in mind that U.K. rules and U.S. rules differ. In the U.K., there is no comma before the "and" (known as the Oxford comma); in the U.S., there is. You may see the comma omitted in the U.S. for news articles and other such areas of journalism, but in fiction writing and most of nonfiction writing, the comma still stands.

Times, Places, and Ideas

8. Use a comma between the day of the month and the year. If either the day of the month or the year is omitted, do not use a comma.

Example A: I was born on January 12, 1927.

Example B: I was born in January 1927.

Example C: I was born on January 12.

9. Use a comma to separate city and state.

Example: She was born in Lexington, Kentucky.

10. Use a comma to set off a direct quote. When splitting a sentence that contains a direct quote, place a comma before both halves of the quote.

Example A: John said, "It's your turn to wash the dishes."

Example B: "How is it my turn," Mary complained, "when I did them last night?"

11. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question when they are both part of the same sentence.

Example: I can go with my friends, can't I?

12. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.

Example: I prefer to have my beverages shaken, not stirred.

Clarification

Though seldom needed, commas can sometimes be used for clarification. If you are a native speaker of English, recognizing the need for such a comma will come a bit more easily. Even so, developing the necessary intuition to recognize these situations can be difficult. The following is an example of how to deal with such a sentence.

Unclear: The room was full of crying babies and mothers. (Were the mothers crying too?)

Better: The room was full of crying babies, and mothers. (Clearer, but let's make it even better.)

Best: The room was full of mothers and crying babies.

As you can see from the examples above, the best option is to reword the sentence entirely.

Quick Overview of Commas

1. Commas are used to set off nonessential information.
2. Use commas to separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
3. Use commas after introductory clauses, except in the case of adverbial phrases immediately followed by the verb they modify.
4. Use commas to set off names, titles, and degrees.
5. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives.
6. Use a comma to separate day of the month and year.
7. Use a comma to separate city and state.
8. Use commas to set off direct quotes.
9. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question and between contrasting parts of a sentence.
10. Use commas sparingly for clarification.

The Grammar Grind: Periods

Periods are pretty simple. They go at the end of a sentence when a statement is made, either declarative or imperative, and after an indirect question. Declarative sentences are those which state fact or observation. An imperative sentence is a type of non-urgent command. For example: Please take out the trash. Note even without the word please, this sentence would still be considered imperative, because there is no indication of anger or desperation. (If there were, an exclamation mark would be more appropriate.) An indirect question is a statement of a question someone else has asked. Indirect questions often start with "he asked" or "she asked" but do not have to.

Abbreviations, Parenthesis, and Lists
Periods are also used after abbreviations, such as "Mr." and Mrs." (except after cardinal directions). If a sentence has an abbreviation or quote with a period that falls at the end of a sentence, you do not put a second period after it. Example: The time is currently 8:01 p.m. Nevertheless, there is no hard and fast rule when it comes to using periods after all abbreviations. Some organizations prefer to exclude them, especially when all capital letters are used.

When using parenthesis, whether or not a period falls inside or outside depends on the context. If the information within the parenthesis forms a complete sentence, a period should be placed inside the parenthesis; an example of this can be seen in the first paragraph of this article. If the information within the parenthesis simply gives additional information but does not form a complete sentence on its own, a period should be placed outside the parenthesis (like in this sentence).

When making bulleted lists, periods should be placed at the end of each list item if complete sentences are used. Lists items that are fragments or single words do not require periods. However, your list should be consistent; use either complete sentences or fragments throughout your list, not both. For numbered and lettered lists, you will also need a period after each number or letter to set it apart from the items in the list.

Example 1:
While I'm away, my cat will need

• Food 
• Water 
• Fresh Litter

Example 2:
Writers should carry with them

      a. Writing utensils
      b. Erasers
      c. A notebook

Example 3:
When you get stuck writing a scene,

1. Take a break and come back to it later. 
2. Ask a friend for some input. 
3. Read some tips and articles for inspiration. 

For more examples and further information on making lists, check out Grammar Girl's post: http://bit.ly/1eRzItD.

Quotations and Spacing
One of the most frequently asked questions involving periods is whether or not they go inside quotation marks. The U.S. has a very straight-forward rule on this: Periods alwaysgo inside quotations marks with no exceptions. Other countries, as well as the journalism field, do not follow this rule.

As far as spacing after a period--and any other ending punctuation--you should only put ONE space after it. In the days of typewriters, block letters (letters of an equal width) were used, so an extra space was needed to mark the beginning of a new sentence. However, with the introduction of word processors a few decades back, the ability to automatically detect different widths for each letter came about. This ability eliminated the need for the manual addition of an extra space. So question it no further: No matter how you were taught, it is now considered incorrect to use two spaces after a period. I realize this habit is difficult to break for a lot of people, and in truth, most people won't say anything if you use double spaces. The habit can be broken though!


Quick Overview of Periods

1. Periods are used at the end of declarative and imperative sentences, and after indirect questions. 
2. Periods are used after abbreviations, except cardinal directions. 
3. There should only ever be one period at the end of a sentence. 
4. Periods can be placed inside or outside of parenthesis depending on the context. 
5. Periods are used after numbers and letters when making lists. 
6. For U.S. standards, periods always go inside quotations. 
7. Only one space should be used after a period.

The Grammar Grind: Introduction

With texting and social networking playing such a big part in our daily methods of communication, particularly among adolescents, it's easy to see why grammar takes a backseat. There are even some who believe punctuation and grammar are overrated and don't make a bit of difference. But I'm here to you that just the opposite is true. Especially if you're a writer. A great storyline and well-developed characters are only part of what makes a good book good. The use of correct punctuation and grammar will help give your book a fighting chance in the publishing world; a book that is a grammatical nightmare will likely just be fed to the shredder, or it will be tossed in a slush pile, buried by thousands of other books just like it.

Skeptical? The next time you come across a story with little or no punctuation, or even massively incorrect punctuation, take note of how quickly you tire of it when trying to decipher the sentence. You may even give up on it after a paragraph or two. In a previous series of mine, Why Good Writing Matters, I briefly touched on the subject of grammar and how it can affect one's writing. In this series, The Grammar Grind, I'll go more in depth with the rules of grammar and present a few tips for remembering them. After all, what good does it do to mention the rules if they don't stick? By the end of this series, I hope to clearly explain the basic rules of punctuation and grammar so that they etch themselves into your brain...or at the very least, adhere to it.

The Thesaurus: Evil or Not Evil?

Overuse of a thesaurus is a common problem among writers. And it's understandable. When you're in a bind and just can't think of an alternative word to the one you've written, thesauruses are an easy way to get new ideas. The problem with thesauruses isn't the actual use or intent behind using them; it's how the words are then incorporated. If you've spent a lot of time working on a piece and have established a sound voice and style of narrative, you don't want it to be ruined by something simple like a word that doesn't quite fit. An error like that has an amateur feel to it, even if the rest of the piece is written well. It will be especially clear to the reader if you suddenly throw in some big words into the middle of otherwise everyday language.

Here are some tips for incorporating new words into your writing without relying on a thesaurus:

• Follow/Subscribe to blogs with daily vocabulary posts. Even if you just glance at the posts for these, you'll be taking in new information. It's also the easiest way of checking out new words, as there is little to no effort on research involved.

• Use interactive sites to learn new vocabulary. Interactive sites offer a valuable learning tool when it comes to unfamiliar words. Not only do they provide the word and definition, but they challenge you to see if you're really retaining the information. Some, like freerice.com, actually use the traffic to donate to others in need. It's a great way to learn and to give back.

• Look up words you don't know or are unsure of. There is no shame in not knowing a word or in being unsure about it. It doesn't mean you're dumb or that you're bad at writing. I actually do it myself frequently. Writers and editors are responsible for questioning everything that goes into a story, and a bit of extra research is part of that responsibility. Plus, if you don't know a word well and use it incorrectly, you'll probably get some grief for it. Be sure to pay careful attention to the part of speech when you're looking up a new word; correct usage is what trips people up most often.

• Use learned words in everyday conversations. As is the key with everything else in writing, practicing use of these new words is essential. It's comparable to learning a foreign language. The phrase, "If you don't use it, you'll lose it," holds very true in this case. You can further increase your skills by incorporating the new words into your writing. The more practice you have using uncommon words, the more easily they will mesh with your prose and dialogue.

Sometimes a thesaurus simply cannot be avoided. It's one of those tools that every writer needs from time to time, and there's nothing wrong with that. In fact, if done consistently and in conjunction with the style of writing/prose, using one to find more sophisticated words (generally a big no-no) is okay.

Here are some tips for when you do use a thesaurus:

• Pick the word that fits best, not just one that sounds neat. Specifically, use the word that is most consistent with the style of the prose and/or dialogue. Try out a few different ones to make sure the one you pick is really the best option. Get a second opinion if need be.

• Keep thesaurus use to a minimum. Relying too heavily on a thesaurus can not only set you back after a while, it can alter your writing style and unique voice as an author.

• If you use a word from the thesaurus, take the time to learn it. Doing so will allow you to make better use of it in your future writing, and you will likely become more adept at incorporating it.

Contrary to what you might think or have heard, thesauruses are not the spawn of Satan. They do not take away from writing when used correctly; they are often a great utensil for writers, barring a few reservations. The trick is being able to distinguish when their use is an advantage and when it's a crutch.